Costa Blanca Travel Guide

Timeline History of Spain

From Prehistoric to the Moorish Conquest (c. 10,000 BC to AD 711)

The territory of Spain was already populated in the Palaeolithic period. The earliest attested inhabitants are the Ligurians on the north-east coast and the Iberians, probably immigrants from North Africa, in the east and south. The Basques, in the western Pyrenean region, are thought to be the remnant of a pre-Indo-European population.

c. 10,000 BC Late Palaeolithic: notable cave paintings (Altamira, El Castillo, etc)
5000-2000 Neolithic: cave paintings (scenes of war and hunting) in eastern Spain.
2000-1600 Megalithic culture (Copper Age): monumental tombs and cult structures.
about 1100 The Phoenicians establish trading posts on the south coast - Gadri (Cádiz), Malaka (Málaga), Tartessos etc.
after 1000 The Celts, who in subsequent centuries mingle with the Iberians to become Celtiberians, thrust into the interior of the country.
from 700 A number of ports - Emporion (Ampurias), Mainake (at Torre del Mar, 30 km (20 mi0 east of Málaga), etc. - are established by the Greeks, mainly Ionians form the Phocaean colony of Massalia (Marsielles).
from 600 The Carthaginians drive out the Greeks.
236-206 After the First Punic War, the Carthaginians under Hamilcar Barc, Hasdrubal and Hannibal extend their colonial power from the Tagus to the Ebro.
about 225 Foundation of Cathago Nova (Cartegena)
219 At the beginning of the Second Punic War, hannibal destroys Saguntum, an ally of Rome.
201 Under a peace treaty with Rome, Cathage gives up its Spanish possessions.
197 Establishment of the Roman provinces of Hisania Citerior in the north-east and Hispania Ulterior in the south-west.
A series of risings - by the Lusitanians under the leadership of Viriathus (154-139), the Celtiberians (143-133), the Asturians, Cantabrians and other tribes (25-19), etc. - hamper the complete subjection of the peninsular but not the rapid linguistc and cultural Romanisation of the country (with the exception of the Basque territories.
81-72 The Roman praetor Serborius, a supporter of Marius, tries to establish an independent Celtiberian state.
45 Julius Caesar defends pompey's sons and supporters at Munda (south west of Córdoba) and becomes dictator. His veterans are settled on the properties of his defeated rivals.
27 Spain is divided into the provinces of Hispania Tarraconensis (in the north and east), lusitania (in the west, between the Duero/Douro and Guadiana) and Baetica (the original Hispania Ulterior).
19 The Iberian peninsula is fully incorporated into the Roman Empire by Augustus
The Romanised population of Spain produces writers like Seneca, Lucan and Martial and the Emperors Trajan, Hadrian and Theodosius (the Great).
AD 74 Vespasian grants the principle towns the ius Latii (municipal charters)
from 100 Beginning of the Christianisation of the Iberian peninsula.
after 400 During the Great Migrations, the Alans (a tribe from the Iranian steppe) settle in what is now Portugal, the Vandals (an east germanic people) in southern Spain, the Suevi ( from southern Germany) in the north-west.
414 The Vandals move on into Africa
466-84 King Eurich, ruler of the Visigothic kingdom of Tolosa, defeats the Suevi and establishes Visigothic rule throughout Spain (except the north-west). The oldest Germanic code of law, the Codex Euricianus, written in Latin, is compiled during his reign.
507-711 After the fall of the kingdom of Tolosa the Visigoths continue to rule Spain, with their capital at Toledo.
551 Under Justinian the Byzanthines conquer the south coast of Spain, but lose it again in 624
587 The conversion of the Arian Visigoths to orthadox Catholicism is followed by their rapid amalgamation with the Romanised population.
711 The Arab general Tarik defeats a Visigothic army led by Roderick at Jerez de la Frontera.
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Spain under the Moors (711-1492)

During the period of Arab rule the peninsula enjoys an economic and cultural flowering. Eastern and Hellenistic leaning is transmitted through Spain to the Christian West.

from 714	Spain (with the exception of the upland regions of Asturias, Galicia and the Basque country) is a province of the Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus.
732	Through his victory at Tours and Poiters Charles martel drives the Arabs out of Gaul.
756	The Umayyad Abderrahman I flees to Spain and founds the Emigrate of Córdoba, which extends over the whole of the peninsula. The introduction of new crops (rice, sugar, etc.), irrigation and the growing output of silk and weapons make possible a period of great economic prosperity and high cultural achievement. The Arabs show religious tolerance to Christians and Jews. Many Christians become converts to Islam and adopt the Arabic language and Arab customs (the Mozarabs).
778	Charlemangne lases his Spanish conquests after the defeat of his rear-guard in the pass of Roncesvalles, in which Roland (hero of the "Chanson de Roland") is killed.
929-1031	Caliphate of Córdoba, Abderrahman III assumes the title of Caliph in 929. This was the heyday of Moorish culture in Spain (mosques, terraced gardens adjoining the Alhambra, large library, new palace at Medina Azaahra, etc.)
930	The Caliph conquers Toledo, and in the following year north-western Africa to beyond Tahert (lost in 979)
985-97	Almansor ("the Victorious"), grand vizier of Caliph Hisham II, conquers Barcelona (985), León (987) and Santiago de Compostela (997) - the farthest expansion of Moorish military power in Spain.
1031	Fall of the last Umayyad Caliph, Hisham III. The Caliphate of Córdoba is split up into more than 20 independent petty states (taifas), later to be reunited by the Almoravids.
1085	Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo after a five years' siege.
from 1086	The Almoroavids, Berber sect from North Africa, responding to a call for help from the Moorish Emirs, defend the Moorish states against Christian attacks under the leadership of Yusuf ibn Tashfin and unite the Muslims south of Spain with their kingdom in North Africa.
1146	The Almoravid kingdom in North Africa is conquered by the Almohads, a fanatical Berber sect, who maintain their position in Spain from 1195to 1225, continually at war with the Christian kingdoms.
1212	Caliph Mohammed en-nasir suffers a heavy defeat at Las Navas de Tolosa at the hands of the combined army of Castile, Aragon and Navarre. A number of petty Muslim states are established, but cannot prevent the decline of the Almohad empire. the moors lose Córdoba (1236), Seville (1248), Cádiz (1263) and other towns.
1238-1492	The Emirate of Granada, under the Nasrid dynasty.
1238	Mohammed ibn al-Ahmar, of the Beni Nasr tribe, establishes the Emirate of Granada (incorporating Málaga and Almeria). Granada becomes the wealthiest town in the peninsula and its cultural centre.
1246	Granada is required to pay tribute to the king of Castile.
1275	Mohammed II, with the help of Sultan Abu Yusuf of Morocco, defeats the Castilians at Ecija and Martos.
1292	The emirate loses Tarifa to Castile, followed by Gibraltar in 1309 and Algeciras in 1344.
1300-1400	Granada's brilliant cultural heyday (Construction of Alhambra).
1333	Recovery of Gibraltar (until 1462)
1340	Yusuf I, allied with the Sultan of Morocco, suffers a heavy defeat on the Rio Salado.
1481	Beginning of the war between Granada and Castile, which gradualy conquers the whole of Granadan territory.
1492	After the fall of Málaga (1487) and Granada (1492) Emir Abdallah Mohammed XIII, known to the Spaniards as Boabdil, withdraws to North Africa. This is followed by the expulsion of the Moors and the Jews, seriously hampering the further economic development of Spain.

The rise of the Christian States until the Union of the two Leading Kingdoms, Castile and Argon (c. 718-1516)

The Reconquista (recovery by the Christian kingdoms) of the Iberian peninsula, starting in the north, ends in the final expulsion of the Moors and the formation of a Spanish national state. Tthe Medieval culture of Spain bears the mark of its contact with Islam as with the Christian West.

722	Pelayo. a Goth, defeats the Moors at Covadonga and found the kingdom of Asturias in the Asturian hills.
about 750	Alfonso I unites Asturias with Cantabria and acquires León, Old Castile and Galicia. Under Alfonso III León becomes capital of the kingdom.
after 778	The Counties of Catalonia (capital Barcelona) and Navarre are formed out of Charlemagnee's Spainsh March.
about 900	The County of Castile (named after the castles built for defence against the Moors) comes into being.
after 910	Alfonso III's sons divide the kingdom into Galicia, Asturias and León.
1029	King Sancho III of Navarre inherits the County of Castile. The division of his kingdom between his three sons lead to the formation of the kingdoms of Castile, Navarre and Aragon.
1037	Ferdinand (Fernando) i, the Great, of Castile wins León.
1072	Alfonso VI of Castile reunites the kingdom (which had again been split up), enlarges it by the addition of part of Navarre and in 1085 conquers New Castile and Toledo. Rodrigo Diaz, the Cid (from Arabic sayyid, "lord"), later to become the Spanish national hero, briefly enters the service of the Moors and conquers Valencia (1094).
1109	Portugal becomes an independent County (from 1139 a kingdom).
1118	Alfonso I of Aragon extends his kingdom during his wars with the Moors and conquers Zaragoza (which becomes his capital). Failure of attempts to unite castile and Aragon.
1130	Alfonso VII of Castile becomes emperor, with authority over all the Christian states in Spain, but his empire is divided up again by the laws od succession into Castile and León.
1137	Union of Aragon and Catalonia.
1212	In the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa the combined knightly armies of Castile, Aragon and Navarre win a decisive victory over the Almohad Caliph.
1229-38	Jaime I of Aragon victorious over the Moors. Conquest of the Balearica (1229-35) and Valencia (1238).
1230	Ferdinand III of Castile finally unites Castile and León, and conquers Córdoba (1236), Murcia (1241) and Seville (1248).
1234-1441	Navarre under French rule.
1263	Alfonso X of Castile (from 1257 also king of Germany) conquers Cádiz and Cartegena.
1282	Pedro III of Aragon gains possession of Sicily.
1295	Under the peace of Anagni Jaime II of Aragon gives up Sicily, and in return receives Sardinia and Corsica from the Pope.
from1307	The Cortes (the estates representing the church, the nobility and the town) of Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia meet together.
1443	Aragon acquires the kingdom of Naples.
1458	Juan II, king of Navarre since 1425, becomes king of Aragon on the death of his brother Alfonso VI.
1496	The marriage of Ferinand II of Aragon (1479-1516) and Isabella of Castile (1474-1504) unites the two kingdoms. Under the Catholic Monarchs the transition to an absolute monarchy takes place.
1486-88	Reorganisation of the Inquisition in Aragon and Castile by Jiménez de Cisneros (from 1495 archbishop of Toledo).
1492	The conquest of Granada ends the Reconquista. Thereafter the fanatical expulsion of Moors and Jews begins. Isabella gives her support to Christopher (Cristóbal Colón), whose voyages of exploration prepare the way for the establishment of the Spanish colonial empire in America.
1494	The treaty of Tordesillas lays down a demarcation line between Spanish and Portuguese colonial interests in America.
1504	Ferdinand II recovers Naples and Sicily after the fall of the royal house (a collateral line of the Aragonese kings).
1515	Navarre up to the Pyrenees falls to Spain.

Spain as a World Power - to the Peninsular War (1516-1813)

Spain rises to international importance in the 16th century through the enormous expansion of its territories in Europe and the colonies and as a centre of the Counter-Reformation. After the death of Philip II it loses its dominating position, since the numerous wars it fights to maintain the catholic faith ruin the country economically and financially.

1516	Charles I, a habsburg, becomes king of Castile and Aragon. After the death of his grandfather Maximilian i he inherits the Habsburg territories and in 1519 becomes holy Roman Emperor as Charles V (coronation in Rome 1530). He is now ruler of Spain, the Netherlands, Sardinia, Naples, Sicily, Milan, Franche-Comté and numerous American colonies. He hands over the Habsburg possessions in Germany to his brother Ferdinand in 1521.
1519-35	Establishment of colonial rule in America. the Spanish conquistadors Cortes and Pizarro conquer Mexico (1519-21), Peru (1531-34) and Chile from 1535). Vast quantities of gold and silver are brought back to Spain.
1520-21	the rising of the comuneros (the towns of Castile) is repressed, and absolutism prevails; the Cortes lose their importance.
1521-56	Charles V fights five wars against France in order to maintain Spanish hegemony in Italy and Burgundy.
1534	Ignacio de Loyola founds the Jesuit order 9the society of Jesus0.
1535-41	Charles V's forces occupancy Tunis and Algiers.
1556	Charles V abdicates and withdraws to the monastery of Yusta.
1556-98	Philip II, Charles's son, assumes the leadership of the counter-reformation in Europe. With the help of the Inquisition he fights heresy in Spain and has the Christianised Moors (Moriscos) in Andalusia almost completely exterminated.
1559	The treaty of Câteau-Camrésis ends the war with France for supremacy in Italy and Burgundy.
1563-84	Building of the Escorial.
1565-72	Conquest of the Philippines.
1571	In the naval battle of Lapanto the Turkish fleet is annihilated by Spanish warships.
1580	Spain is united with Portugal in a personal union (which lasts until 1640). The acquisition of the Portugese colonial possessions brings the Spanish empire to its greatest extent.
1581	The fanatical severity with which Philip II and his general the Duke of Alba seek to repress the Protestant and patriotic rising in the Netherlands leads to the secession of the northern Netherlands under William of Orange.
1588	With the destruction of the Armada in the Channel, Spain loses the fights with Britain for command of the sea.
1609-10	Expulsion of the last Moriscos and Jews (about 600,000) from southern Spain in the reign of Philip III.
1618-48	Spain takes part in the Thirty Years' War on the side of the Austrian HabsBurgs.
1621	resumption of the fight against the free Netherlands (whose independence Spain has later to recognise under the treaty of Westphalia).
1640	Portugal dissolves its union with Spain.
1652	A catalan rising (which had begun in 1640) is repressed.
1659	Under the Peace of the Pyrenees, Spain cedes Roussillion, Cerdaña (Cerdagne) and part of Flanders to France.
1678	Spain finally cedes Franche-Comté to France.
1701-13	in the War of the Spanish Succession the Bourbon claimant, Philip of Anjou, a grandson of Louis XIV, fights for recognition against the Austrian Habsburgs, Britain and the Netherlands.
1713	Under the treaty of Utrecht, Philip V cedes Spanish territory in the Netherlands, Milan and Naples to Austria, Sicily to Savoy, Minorca and Gibraltar to Britain, but retains the Spanish colonies.
1717-30	Unsuccessful conflict with Austria for Sardinia and Sicily.
1735	the kingdom of Naples and Sicily passes to a collateral line of the Spanish bourbons, as does the Duchy of Palma and Piacenza in 1748.
1959-88	The Bouron Charles III (Duke of Palma 1731-35, king of Naples and Sicily 1723-59) rules in the spirirt of enlightened absolutism.
1763	At the end of the Seven Years' War Spain loses Florida to Britain but acquires western Louisiana from France.
1767	Expulsion of the Jesuits.
1783	Under the treaty of Versailles at the end of the War of American Independence, Spain recovers Florida and Minorca from Britain.
1788-1808	Advised by his favourite Manuel de Godoy, charles IV leads Spain into total dependence on Napoleon.
1801	Return of Louisiana to France.
1805	Destruction of the French and Spanish fleet by Nelson at Trafalgar.
1808	A rising in Aranjuez overthrows the Francophile Godoy and compels Charles IV to abdicate in favour of his son Ferdinand (Fernendo) in March. Seeing his interests in the Iberian peninsula in jepardy, Napoleon occupies Spain and compels both Charles and Ferdinand VII to abdicate. Napoleon's brother joseph becomes king of Spain, his brother-in-law Marshal Murat kin of Naples. A revolt by the people of Madrid against Murat's troops on May 2nd marks the beginning of a Spanish national rising. Juntas (committees) are formed to organise a guerrilla war against French Rule. A French army surrenders at Bailén in July, and Joseph flees from Madrid. A British army commanded by general Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington) supports the Spanish war of liberation, and Napoleon then intervenes personally in the war.
1808-09	Napoleon occupies Madrid, takes Zaragoza and enables Joseph to return. Spain is almost completely occupied.
1810-25	The Spanish colonies in South America declare their independence.
1812	The Cortes, meeting in Câdiz, adopt the first Spanish constitution.
1813	Wellington's victory in the decisive battle of Victoria frees Spain from foreign rule.

From the Restoration to the Establishment of the Second Republic (1813-1931)

The history of Spain in the 19th century is marked be a series of civil wars, caused by the reactionary policies of the restored monarchy, the country's economic backwardness and a number if misadventures in foreign policy. Although Spain remains neutral in the First World War and prospers economically, the country's internal conflics become more acute for lack of the necessary economic and social reforms.

1814	Ferdinand VII returns to the throne, rejects the liberal constitution of 1812 and rules as an absolute monarch.
1820	Liberal revolution in Cádiz, led by Colonel Rafael del Riego Núñez. The king thereupon recognises the 1812 constitution. The Liberals soon fall into two schools of thought, the moderatos and the Exaltados (radicals), who are constantly at odds.
1823	On behalf of the Holy Alliance France represses the revolution by military intervention. Absolutism is restored.
1830	In the "Pragmatic Sanction" Ferdinand VII provides for his daughter Isabella to succeeed him on the throne.
1834	introduction of a moderately liberal constitution.
1834-39	First carlist War. Don Carlos, Ferdinand VII's brother, declares himself king (Charles V) in opposition to the regency of the Queen Mother, Maria Cristina of Naples, during the minority of Isabella II. He is supported by the Basque provinces, Aragon and Cataonia, but the enterprise fails and he flees to France (1839).
1843	Isabella comes of age.
1845	Reactionary constitutional reform
1847-49	The Second Carlist War and republican risings aggravate internal conflicts.
1851	Concordat with the pope confirming the exclusive status of the Roman Catholic religion in Spain
1859-60	War on Morocco: Spain's only gain is Tetuán.
1861-62	Spain participates in the unsuccessful French expedition to Mexico
1868	Revolt led by General Prim and Marshal Serrano: Isabella is deposed and flees to France.
1869	The Cortes appoint Serrano Regent pending the choice of a new king. The candidature of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern fails because of french resistance.
1871-73	Amadeo I, a son of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, abdicates because of opposition by the left. First Rebublic established by the Cortes.
1872-76	The Third carlist War, initiaed by Don Carlos's grandson, is directed against Amadeo I and the First Republic. Mass sociaist risings.
1874	Serrano becomes Dictator; end of the First Republic. restoration of the Bourbons follows a iltary coup led by general martinez de Campos.
1874-83	Alfonso XI, son of Isabella II, makes possible a quieter course of internal development.
1876	A new constitution provides for freedom of association and freedom of the press, but does away with jury trial and civil marriage. End of the Carlist War.
1879-88	Foundations of the Spanish Socialist Workers Party and the General Workers' Union.
1885	Regency (until 1902) of the Queen Mother, Maria Cristina of Austria, during the minority of Alfonso XIII.
1890	Introduction of universal suffage.
from 1890	Autonomist movements in Catalonia, the Basque country and Galicia.
1898	Spainsh-American War. Spain loses its last large colonies (Cuba, the Philippines, Puerto Rico). Its only foreign possessions are now in North Africa.
1899	Spain sells the mariana, Caroline and Pelew Islands to Germany.
1904	Agreement on Morocco between Spain and France.
1909	Beginning of campaign in Morocco against the Rif rising, which is not quelled untl 1926. Anarcho-syndicalist (from Sindicato, trade union) rising in Barcelona.
1910-12	Prime Minister Canalejas develops a liberal cultural policy, but fails to undertake economic or social reform. Increasing emigration to America.
1914-18	Spain remains neutral in the First World War.
1923	General Primo de Rivera establishes a military dictatorship, with Alfonso XIII's approval. Dissolution of the Cortes.
1925	Primo de Rivera transforms his military dictatorship into a civil dictotorship. Reforms of financial and tax system; attempted land reform. Increasing opposition in the country.
1926	Spain leaves the league of Nations (re-admitted 1928).
1930	Revolutionary and republican disturbances lead to Primo de Rivera's resignation; he dies in Paris in March.
1931	After a Republican victory in local government elections Alfonso XIII leaves the country. beginning of the Second Republic.

From the second Republic to the Death of Franco (1931-75)

Since the European democtacies do nothing to help the new Spanish republic, and even the Soviet Union beleives that the time is not ripe for a social revolution in Spain, the Republical forces are defeated by the Fascist dictotorship of General Franco, with support from Hitler and Mussolini. After the Second World War the franco regime is unable to lead Spain out of its political and economic isolation; only after Franco's death is the way clear for the liberalisation and democraticisation of the country.

1931	Spain receives a new constitution, liberal and progressive in its provisions: seperate of church and state, a unified state, regional self government for Catalinia (1932) and the Basque country (1936), a limited degree of land reform.
1932-33	Foundation of the Confederation of the Autonomous Right (CEDA) and the fascist Falange.
1933	Election victory for Monarchists and Fascists. During the next three years there are a succession of governement crises and serious disturbances, which lead to the dissolution of Parliament.
1936	After the victory of the Popular Front (Republicans, Socialists, Syndicalists and Communists) there is much social unrest (breaking up of large estates, occupation of factories).
1936-39	The Spanish Civil War breaks out after the murder of a monarchist member of Parliament, Calvo Soleto (July 13th), and a military rising (July 17th) led by General Francisco France y Bahamonde (1892-1975) in Spanish Morocco. Franco and other generals set up a government in Burgos, and in the Junta de Defensa Nacional (Committee of National Defence) appoint him as their leader (Caudillo) and supreme commander of the rebel forces (September 30th). as leader of the Falange he is supported by the Monarchists and the conservative clergy. While Franco's forces receive military support from Germany, Italy and Portugal the rublican government receives help only from Mexico and the Soviet Union and from the volunteers of the International Brigade. Germany and Italy recognise the Franco government (November 18th 1936).
1937	Amalgamation of the Falange Española and the Traditionalista to form the Falange Española tradicionalista, led by Franco.
1939	Recognition of Franco's regime by France, Britain (February 27th) and the United States (April 1st). With the entry of fascist troops into madrid (March 28th) the Civil Wat comes to an end. Spain joins the Anti-Comintern Pact (April 7th) and leaves the League of Nations (May 8th).
1939-45	During the Second World War Spain remains neutral in spite of its links with the Berlin-Rome axis. At Hitler's request, however, Franco sends the "Blue Division" (some 18,000 volunteers) to the estern front.
1940	Spain occupies the International Zone of Tangier (November 3rd). The Trade Union Law (December 6th) prohibilts strikes and free trade unions, which are replaced by paternalistic corporative organisations. Wage freexe, leading to an upturn in the economy.
1945	Spain is obliged to restore the international Zone of tangier (October 11th).
from 1945	Spain is politically and economically isolated as a result of franco's authoritarian regime. It is not a founding member of the United Notions and receives no aid under the Marshall Plan.
1947	a national referendum approves Franco's plan to restore the monarchy at a later date.
1950	The economic and diplomatic sanctions imposed on Spain by the United Nations in 1946 are lifted on the initiative of the United States; Spain grants the United States military bases.
from 1951	Opposition to Franco's dictatotrship grows. Major strikes, largely promoted by separatist movements (Aragon, basque provinces, Asturias), and student revolts, and from 1962 battles over pay, directed against lack of political freedom and socila abuses.
1953	Agreement on US bases: Spain receives economic and military aid worth a billoin dollars which promotes economic development.
1955	Spain becomes a member of the United Nations.
1956	Loss of Spain's North African possessions (except the ports of Ceuta and Melila) to Morocco.
1958	Ifni, Spanish Guinea and the Spanish Sahara are declared to be Spainish oversea provinces.
1959-60	Spain becomes a member of the OEEC and OECD.
from 1960	Spain, enjoys a considerable economic upsurge thanks to mass tourism, much foreign investment and remittances from Spanish workers in Western Europe.
1962	Spain applies for association with the EC.
1962-63	Miners' strikes in Asturias.
1966	A new Organic Law of the State is promulgated as a substitue for a new constitution.
1966-68	Demonstrations by students and priests calling for liberalisation
1968	Spain closes the frontier with Gibraltar at La Linea after the introduction of a new constitution in Gibraltar.
1969-73	The Roman Catholic organisation Opus Dei gains important posts in the government and economy and prevents any moves towards liberalisation.
1969	Juan Carlos (b. 1938 in Rome), grandson of the lask king, Alfonso XIII, is nominated as successor (and from 1971 deputy) to Franco and as the country's future king. Spain cedes Ifni to Morocco.
1970	Military agreement with France and renewal of the agreement on US bases. Basque rising (led by ETA, a militant separatist movement) against political repression. the Falange, whose influence had been steadily reduced by Franco since the 1950's, is remaned the Movimiento Nacional.
1972-73	Strikes in Asturias and Catalonia
1973	Carrero blanco, appointed prime minister in June, is murdered by ETA (December).
1974	The new prime minister, Arias Navarro, introduces minor political reforms. Spain (which is not a member of NATO) signs a "NATO parallel declaration".
from 1974	The effects of the worldwide energy crisis and the economic recession aggravate Spain's internal difficulties: increased unemployement, high inflation, budgetary and balance of payments deficits. Increased terrorist activity by extremeist organisations of left and right, harsh anti-terrorist laws and wildcat strikes reflect the country's political and social insecurity.
1975	State visit by US President Ford (June); renewal of agreement on US bases (October) On Franco's death (November 20th) Prince Juan Carlos becomes king of Spain as Juan Carlos I. Basque, Catalan and Galacian are recognised as teaching and official languages

Democratic Spain (from 1975)

After Franco's death king Juan Carlos I begins the process of democratisation, which continues in spite of attempted coups. Spain becomes a full member of the democratic community of states.

1975	Arias Navarro, Franco's last prime minister, at first remains in office but resigns at the beginning of 1976 under the pressure of public opinion, which demands a return to democracy, and at the king's request.
1976	Arias is suceeded as prime minister by Adolfo Suárez, secretary general of the Movimiento Nacional. In spite of this background he gives a decisive impulse to democratisation. The withdrawal of the last troops from the fromer province of Spanish Sahara marks the end of Spanish colonial rule (January 12th). Treaty of friendship with the United States: Spain is now in practice integrated into the NATO defence system (June). Two thirds of the country's political prisoners are freed under an amnesty (August 2nd)
1977	Resumption of diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union (February 9th). Dissolution of the Movimiento Nacional and legalisation of the Communist Party (PCE; April). the first democratic election since 1936 is held on June 15th. the new Cabinet, headed by Suárez, consists almost exclusively of members of the UCD (Unión del Centro Democrático; July 4th). Spain applies formally for membership of the European community (July). In order to stimulate the economy and reduce unemployment the peseta is devalued by 20% against the US dollar; price controls and measures to promote employment are introduced at the same time (July 24th)
1978	Spain joins the Council of Europe (February 24th). Amalgamation of the first socialist parties (April 30th). There is a further wave of violence by Basque separatists. After a plebiscite on December 6th-7th a new democratic constitution comes into force: constitutional monarchy, abolition of the death penalty, reintroduction of civil marriage (with the possibility of divorce).
1979	In the second parliamentary election since the liberalisation of the country (March 2nd) the UCD, led by Prime Minister Suárez, maintain their lead over the Socialists. The Basque provinces elect members associate with the extreme separatists leading high military officers to express alarm and utter threats. Free local government elections are held for the first time since the Civil War. In referendums held in October, Basques and Catalans approve measures giving them wide powers of regional self-government. In November, Parliament, by a majority, adopts chartersof autonomy for Basque country (charter of Guernica) and Catalonia (charter of Sau).
1980	Regional parliaments are elected in the Basque country and Catalonia. Other religions seek charters of autonomy. A law on freedom of religion comes into force: Catholicism is no longer the state religion.
1981	Prime Minister Suárez resigns (January 29th). During voting on the appointment of Leopoldo Sotelo (UCD) as prime minister over 200 soldiers of the Guardia Civil force their way into Parliament and hold members prisoner for ten hours (February 23rd). Ina radio address King Juan Carlos condems this attempted coup. Calvo Sotelo is elected as head of government (February 25th). Further terrorist attacks by ETA, aimed at securing the complete independence of the Basque region. The two largest Spanish parties, UCD (the Union of the Democratic Centre) and PSOA (the Spanish Socialist Workers Party), join in the "Autonomy Pact", a plan to make Spain a largely decentralised state (August 2nd).
1982	Spain becomes the 16th member of NATO (May 30th). A "law on the harmonisation of the auyonomy process", agreed between UCD and PSOE, is passed (June 30th). Parliament is dissolved in August; the Socialist win the subsequent election (October 28th). Pope John Paul II visits Spain (November). The Socialist leader Flipe González becomes prime minister (December 1st).
1983	Dissolution of the UCD State visit bt Prime Minister González to the United States, seeking economic aid for Spain (June). Regional elections on May 8th, which confirm the Socialist party's increased support, mark the formal conclusion of the move towards autonomy. There are now seventeen " autonomous communities", each with a regional constitution and an elected representative body.
1984	Demonstration against Spain's membership of NATO and the IS military bases on Spanish soil (February 19th). Differences of view in Brussels between EC conteries and Spain over Spanish membership of the Community. Call for the union of the Basque provinces of Spain, southern France and the Spanish region of Navarre (June).
1985	The frontier crossing between Spain and Gibraltar is reopened after being closed for sixteen years. (February 5th). A law treating the Muslim inhabitants of Melilla and Ceut, the Spanish enclaves in North Africa, as foreigners, who may be expelled to Morocco, comes into force and gives rise to denonstrations.
1986	Spain joins the European Community on January 1st. An agreement between the Spanish government and the towns of Melilla and Ceuta makes provision for the more rapid grant of Spanish citizenship to the Muslim inhabitants of these places (February). A national referendum shows a majority in favour of continued Spanish membership of NATO (march 12th). In parliamentary elections on June 22nd the Spanish Socialist Workers party (PSOE) again wins a majority: Felipe González is re-elected prime minister for a further four-year term.
1987	In local governmentand regional elections in June the PSOA, which since 1982 has had an absolute majority in most regions, suffers significant losses. An ETA bonb attack on a department store in Barcelona kills eighteen people (June 19th). Spain signs the treaty banning nuclear wepons (November 5th). A further ETA attack on a Guardia Civil barracks in Zaragoza leaves eleven dead (December 11th). All parties in Parliament except the radical Basque parties Herri Batasuna and Eusko Alkartauna sign a "State pact against Terrorism and Violence" which excludes any nedotiation with ETA.
1988	The withdrawal of American fighter planes from the Torrejón air force base is seen as a success for Spanish Policy. Mrs Thatcher becomes the first British prime minister to visit spain (September). At the turn of the year the conflict between the socialist goverment and UHT, a trade union which has been closely associated with the PSOE for more than a hundred years, becomes more acute. UGT accuses Prime Minister González of abondoning socialist ideals and calls for measures of social justice and action to reduce high unemployment. In december UGT and the communist workers' committee call a general strike.
1989	Spain takes over the predidency of the European Community. Negotiations between the trade unions and the government to settle the conflict mkaes no prgress. Discussions, in progess since January, between ETA leaders and the government in Algiersm to which the ETA representatives have been expelled from France, end without result. ETA calls off the ceasefire to which it had agreed, and this is followed by several bomb attacks on railway lines. The government, with the support of almost all parties, declares that it is no longer prepared to negotiate with ETA. Camilo José Cela is awarded the Nobel Prize for literature (October). In a parliamentary election in october the González government loses its absolute majority, but Felipe González remains prime minister. The main gainer in the election is the Izquiera Unida (United Left), which increases its representation fron seven to eightenn seats, while the conservatives stagnate (PP) or lose seats (CDS).
1990	The Basque regional Parliament passes a resolution stressing the right of self-determination of the Basques and of freedom of power.
1991	In country-wide local and regional elections the PSOE records modest success but loses a number of strongholds. The Conservatives make considerable gains at the expense of the centre parties. The ETA carries out several attacks during the run-up to the Olympic Games and the International Exhibition. In one bombing attack in May on the Guardia-Civil barracks near barcelona nine people are killed.
1992	Spain celebrates the 500th anniversary of the voyage of discovery of Columbus. From April 20th until October 12th EXPO '92 is held in Seville, the last world exhibition in the 20th c. to mark the occasion Spain's first high speed train "AVE" comes into operation on the route between Seville and Madrid. OnJuly 25th the 25th Summer Olympic Games of modern times are opened in Barcelona. In February a bomb attack by ETA claims five lives in Madrid. In march the French police arrest the three ETA leaders. A tanker runs aground in December off the coast of La Coruña spilling 70,000t of oil which pollutes the Galician coastline.
1993	The continuous economic crisis causes Fleipe González to call early elections in which his party, the PSOE, loses its absolute majority. He forms a minority government with the support of the moderate Catalan and Basque regional parties. Another ETA attack in May kills seven people.
1994	In January the trade unions call a general strike in protest at the restructuring of the employment market and the economic policy. Several cases of curruption bring about a government crisis in May.

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